Three of my secret spy elves copied and pasted Chris's FML questions to me *before* I actually got my copy of the FML. I'm impressed. Without doing a lot of quoting, let me just say Chris's questions can be broken into two basic questions: 1) Do ferrets need to be imprinted on humans to be tamed towards them, and 2) Does imprinting make wild animals (mink) better pets. To answer the 2nd question first, yes, imprinting makes wild animals like mink better pets. In fact, in most cases, that's about the only way it is possible for them to be even adequate pets. In mustelids, the critical phase is BEFORE the eyes are fully open, but extends to weaning. Once weaned, while you can tame an animal down, it does not really imprint on the care provider. Weasels, mink, badgers, skunks, and polecats all react this way. In fact, I have a turn-of-the-century book on animal training what has a chapter entitled "Get Them While They Are Young!" Now, there is a world of difference between a human-imprinted domestic animal and a human-imprinted wild animal. I visit ferret owners all the time, and would never hesitate to handle almost any ferret. Yet, when visiting friends who own wild animals, I *never* attempt to touch or hold without the owner in attendance, and then do so very carefully. Even when imprinted, wild animals are not trustworthy and can bite at any time--even their owners. And do so frequently. Most imprinted wild animals can be approached by people while they are juveniles, but once the hormones kick in, especially testosterone, the animal can become quite nasty. I have a turn of the century reference on a black-footed ferret that was human-imprinted, but once it went into rut it became so dangerous it had to be destroyed. As for the ferret part, they also have to be imprinted by humans to reduce fear. Most larger breeders handle the babies a lot (Modern ferret did a story describing the handling) to make them completely positive toward people. The garage-breeders I know can't seem to keep their hands of the babies, and they get as much human contact--or more--than at the large breeders. The test is found with feral ferrets. I have been TOLD (I have yet to read any respectible paper of the subject, but I have asked four different New Zealanders--who have experience--about it) that older feral ferrets will eventually (sometimes quite fast) tame down, but never act like pet ferrets. However, if the feral ferret is collected while young, they can find no real difference between them. Now, to be technically correct, the babies are not really imprinting on people, but are rather socializing with them. In other words, the ferrets know clearly who is the mommy and who is the human. Imprinting is a wiring thing in the brain, but socialization is learned. Solitary ferrets do not learn how to socialize with other ferrets, and later people have a very difficult time mainstreaming them with other ferrets. Socialization is learned very early in the ferret's life, which is one reason why people who maintain large piles of ferrets have little problem introducing new ones, but people who only have a few ferrets tend to have difficulty in such introductions. In my case, Minnie Moose and Mickey Moose were introduced in less than two days. While there is still some hierarchical squibbling, it is very minor. TLE, who has at least 4 times more ferrets than I do, has told me the same thing. Yet, almost weekly, I get a letter form someone saying they cannot get ferret No. 6 introduced. I believe the difference is mainly one in socialization. I think this increases stress and could be a factor in the advent of some types of disease. Bob C and 18 MO' Freedom Ferret Fighters [Posted in FML issue 2810]